Why God is a Woman

I just finished teaching a six week course culminating in M-Theory - the leading Theory of Everything (TOE) designed to unify quantum mechanics with gravity and space-time. The "M" in M-Theory stands for Mother, Monster, Mystical or Moral (take your pick - I prefer Mother). I taught this class to learn more about the possibilities of "New Stoicism" - a modern reinterpretation of the ancient (pre-Christian) Stoic philosophy. Stoicism is a philosophy like no other, because its tenets are drawn from natural physical laws. It is built from the ground up from the laws of physics, thermodynamics and cosmology. New Stoicism is an adjusted version of this ancient philosophy - modified to incorporate quantum mechanics and relativity. As a philosophy Stoicism attempts to read natural physical laws in allegorical ways for general guidance on the broader ethical and moral issues of life. The Stoic mantra is to live "according to nature." Here's what I am discovering.

The laws that “govern” the Universe seem to be regulated by a "top-level" selection mechanism intrinsic to a "biological phase" in nature – also called "intrinsic subtle biology." The Higgs field is currently the leading candidate to play this selection role. In the current M-Theory, the Higgs field is the only field that exists during the initial moments after the "Big Bang." The other fields (gravitational, weak, strong and electromagnetic) emerge (from symmetry breaking) as the early universe expands and cools. The Higgs field operates in the universe as an a priori “top-level code.” The Mother Higgs field selects only one universe from the enormous range of universes permitted (there are 10 exp 540 possible solutions with M-Theory! That's 10 followed by 540 zeros!). The single universe that does emerge is the only one harmonious with the emergence of sentience and self-reflection. What good is a universe that can’t even appreciate itself?

If this is so, this modern idea of a feminine "Universal Intelligence" embedded in the laws of nature accords with the ancient stoic idea of "Logos" which was seen as playing a similar role in nature. The ancient Logos was feminine. The highest expression of subtle biology (which I take the liberty to rename as the "New Logos") would present as an embedded "rational consciousness" that permeates the infant universe prior to the creation of matter and energy, and acts as the guarantor to ensure that the universe “selected” is compatible with intelligence. The universe that evolves could thus be said to have been made in the image of its creator.

Origen (182 CE-251 CE)

For if the mystery concealed of old is made manifest to the Apostles through the prophetic writings, and if the prophets, being wise men, understood what proceeded from their own mouths, then the prophets knew what was made manifest to the Apostles.

Books from Alibris: Origen

The Greatest Stoic Commandment - Unpublished Selections Explained, Med. VII.39

Meditation VII.39 - The Greatest Stoic Commandment - Translated by George Long and rewritten by Russell McNeil

To the Intelligence that governs all and to all humanity give joy.⁽¹⁾

Explanation

(1) Marcus pays homage to the active principle of nature, the universal "intelligence that governs all." We revere this feminine principle (please see Meditation X.14 in the Introduction of the book, p. xxiii) because she is enduring, she is the mother of all creation, we are embedded in her, and each of us is descended from her. A non-Stoic might regard this sentiment as Nature worship, but a Stoic would recognize this injunction as a statement of human worth. We do not worship nature; we embrace the nature of which we form a part. We do not worship the divine because we are divine.

In Matthew 22:34-40 a lawyer asked Jesus a question:

"Teacher, which is the greatest commandment in the law?" Jesus said to him, "'You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your mind.' This is the first and great commandment. A second likewise is this, 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.' The whole law and the prophets depend on these two commandments."

The key phrase in this stunning New Testament claim is that we must love our neighbors "as ourselves." This Christian example - like its Stoic counterpart above - is also not a commandment to worship, it is a commandment to love, and love is central to Stoicism and Christianity alike. The Stoic reading of this commandment understands that loving our neighbors follows logically from self love because the universal intelligence or Logos is in us, and in our neighbors as well. For the Stoic this recognition draws us inexorably toward the divine, because the divine is beautiful and what is beautiful gives joy. The principle of reciprocity (see Meditation X.36) requires us in return to "give joy" back to that which gives us joy.

Russell McNeil, PhD, is the author of The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius: Selections Annotated and Explained by Skylight Paths Publishing. The unpublished selections presented in this Blog are provided as supplemental material to the published selections which are annotated and explained in the book. The published selections are referenced in this Blog by page number and section.

Nature as Parable - Unpublished Selections Explained, Med. VIII.20

Meditation VIII.20 - Nature as Parable - Translated by George Long and rewritten by Russell McNeil

Nature has had regard in everything no less to the end than to the beginning and the continuance, just like the man who throws up a ball. What good is it then for the ball to be thrown up, or harm for it to come down, or even to have fallen? And what good is it to the bubble while it holds together, or what harm when it is burst? The same may be said of a light also.^1,2

Explanation

(1) Marcus asks us to reflect on three distinct physical phenomena in this meditation: the dynamics of a ball moving in a parabolic arc under the influence of gravity, the physics of a bubble in equilibrium and governed (as we know now) by a balance of internal pressure and surface tension, and the propagation of a light beam. Although the ancient understanding of the details of physical phenomena might seem primitive to moderns, certain fundamental observations - the ones asserted here - remain valid. The basic tenet governing all three examples - one that Marcus seems to appreciate at least intuitively - is the principle of conservation. We infer this idea from his assertion that although in each of the examples given there is a significant change over the course of the event, something must also remain constant. This "thing" or "property" that does not change is the underlying reason that nature maintains its equal "regard" for the discussed effect at all times during the action: at the beginning of the event, during the event itself, and at the end of the event. This is an extraordinarily prescient claim from the ancient world because conservation laws in modern physics remain at the heart of all physical observations - from energy and momentum conservation at the macroscopic scale, to the conservation of the various properties of particles at the microscopic or quantum scale.

The meditative value of these physical examples derives from the Stoic belief that our moral and ethical guidance is written in the laws of nature. In a very real sense a physical law in nature performs the same sort of instructional role as a gospel parable - albeit one that requires careful reflection. Stoics do not direct their actions based upon a Mosaic or Koranic code. Stoic behavior is modeled exclusively on the Physics of the natural world. because the physics of the natural world is a direct manifestation of divine law. The Stoic "God" is not above nature, it is nature. The laws themselves are really the voice of divinity and these laws are the only "words" that a Stoic has to go by. The duty of the Stoic is to live according to nature, or according to the laws of nature as we come to know them. Like gospel parables, these laws are never explicit - they are like complex metaphors that require wisdom to decipher. Like parables they also require a willingness and openness to be understood in moral terms.

(2) This file is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike 3.0. Attribution: Mila Zinkova.

Russell McNeil, PhD, is the author of The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius: Selections Annotated and Explained by Skylight Paths Publishing. The unpublished selections presented in this Blog are provided as supplemental material to the published selections which are annotated and explained in the book. The published selections are referenced in this Blog by page number and section.

The Stoic Carrot has no Stick - Unpublished Selections Explained, Med. VIII.26

Meditation VIII.26 - The Stoic Carrot has no Stick - Translated by George Long and rewritten by Russell McNeil

It is satisfaction to a human to do the proper works of a human.¹ Now it is a proper work of a human to be benevolent to others, to despise the movements of the senses, to form a just judgment of plausible appearances, and to take a survey of the nature of the universe and of the things which happen in it.^2,3

Explanation

(1) What is proper for a human being is to follow the directives of the superior faculty - that is reason. Human beings live according to nature when they follow reason. While it is possible to willfully live in opposition to nature (we have free will), no Stoic ever presumes that those who live in opposition to nature do so willfully. The preferred Stoic stance is that those who live in opposition to nature do so from ignorance. The willful rejection of reason is morally equivalent to the Christian concept of the unforgivable sin - the willing rejection of God's love. The difference in Stoicism is that a rejection of reason is equivalent to the rejection of the self, because we are defined in Stoicism by the reason or Logos in us (see also Meditation IX.38).

(2) Our first duty is to be benevolent to others. This is not an injunction from scripture (there is no Stoic scripture) or from God (there is no Stoic God) or from human authority (there are no human authorities). This is the will of nature, and it follows from "a survey of the nature of the universe and of the things which happen in it." Drawing or inferring moral conclusions from physical laws requires close attention to the nature of things. But this is what Stoicism does. The study of physics (broadly understood as the Law of nature), or nature generally, demonstrates that sentient life is communal. Malevolence toward others is non-rational, or in opposition to the Law of nature.

Marcus does not say we should despise the senses, only the "movements" of the senses. The senses are geared to the body and they ought only inform the body to respond in appropriate ways (to eat, to sleep, to exercise, or to seek emotional release). But if the actions of the body (in response to a desire for pleasure or the avoidance of pain) lead the mind to act (or move) in opposition to our fundamentally benevolent nature we ought to despise these movements. Nothing we do in our lives should ever restrict our fundamental duty toward others. This seems an impossible task - just as the eight beatitudes (Matthew 5:3-10 - see note 3 below) from Christ's Sermon on the Mount (which were certainly inspired by Stoicism) seem impossible to a Christian. But as Christianity offers eternal salvation as the carrot and promise for its life long program, Stoicism maintains that in despising the movements of the senses we will experience peace and serenity - not as a heavenly reward, but in the here and now. This Stoic carrot - immediate "satisfaction" - has a more appealing flavor and is delivered without the stick.

(3) The eight beatitudes below conform to Stoic principles (substitute Logos for God). They articulate (in part) what Stoic benevolence requires. These ideas were sourced in Stoic, Platonic and neoplatonic writings, including those of Seneca (4 BCE – 65 CE) and especially Cicero's (106 BCE - 43 BCE) De Officiis. There would have been no Christian theology or philosophy were it not for these contributions of Greco-Roman wisdom.

Blessed are the poor in spirit,
for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.

Blessed are they who mourn,
for they shall be comforted.

Blessed are the meek,
for they shall inherit the earth.

Blessed are they who hunger and thirst for righteousness,
for they shall be satisfied.

Blessed are the merciful,
for they shall obtain mercy.

Blessed are the pure of heart,
for they shall see God.

Blessed are the peacemakers,
for they shall be called children of God.

Blessed are they who are persecuted for the sake of righteousness,
for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.

Russell McNeil, PhD, is the author of The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius: Selections Annotated and Explained by Skylight Paths Publishing. The unpublished selections presented in this Blog are provided as supplemental material to the published selections which are annotated and explained in the book. The published selections are referenced in this Blog by page number and section.

Stoic Communion with Nature - Unpublished Selections Explained, Med. VIII.61

Meditation VIII.61 - Stoic Communion with Nature - Translated by George Long and rewritten by Russell McNeil

Enter into every one's ruling faculty; and also let every one enter into yours.^{1, 2}

Explanation

(1) This is the sacramental act of Stoicism, although not formally described as such in Stoic philosophy (Stoicism is not a religion). In Christian theology Christ is the Logos. In the Eucharistic tradition we are in communion with Christ or the Logos when we consume consecrated bread and wine. There is a profound difference however between the Stoic and Christian traditions. In Stoicism (which predates Christianity) all human beings are by nature in constant communion with the Logos because the Logos is in us always. Human beings are free to act in accordance with the Logos (live according to nature) or to reject the directives of nature by responding exclusively to the demands of the body over the dictates of reason (live in opposition to nature). But such a rejection of nature does not leave us devoid of reason. Because the Logos is the source of all reason, all human beings are by definition in constant communion with all others. This meditation recognizes the importance of this Stoic communion with nature, and directs us to enter into, and be open to the reality of our cosmopolitan nature. It is through this sacramental union of one-with-all, and all-with-one, that we are able to act rightly in the world. Our duty in life and our key to serenity is acting rightly for the benefit of the universal community.

(2) The published annotation on this meditation provides an extensive commentary on the importance of this meditation and its relationship to Ralph Waldo Emerson's (1803-1882) concept of the "Over-soul." (The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius: Selections Annotated and Explained, Ch. 3, "Stoicism and the Mind - The Supremacy of Reason II," p. 115, 2007)

Russell McNeil, PhD, is the author of The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius: Selections Annotated and Explained by Skylight Paths Publishing. The unpublished selections presented in this Blog are provided as supplemental material to the published selections which are annotated and explained in the book. The published selections are referenced in this Blog by page number and section.

Diamonds and Rust - Unpublished Selections Explained, Med. IX.15

Meditation IX.15 - Diamonds and Rust - Translated by George Long and rewritten by Russell McNeil

Things stand outside of us, themselves by themselves, knowing nothing of themselves, nor expressing any judgment.¹ What is it, then, which does judge about them? The ruling faculty.²

Explanation

(1) Stoicism is an animistic philosophy. Every entity in nature is a composite of body and soul, and it is the soul that actuates all motions of the body. Unlike animistic religious traditions the Stoic soul is not a spiritual force above nature, but a distinct physical property of nature. In the Stoic scheme an inanimate object, like a diamond, is not strictly speaking inanimate. A diamond is able to transmit and diffract light; it can resist decay more so than any other material; and if dropped, it will fall. Modern science will account for each of these properties invoking explanations that draw on the electromagnetic, nuclear, and gravitational forces and fields that surround the diamond at the microscopic and macroscopic levels. The covalent unit cell structure in diamond accounts for its strength. The crystal arrangements of the carbon atoms in diamond account for its unique optical and electromagnetic properties. The gravitational field surrounding the diamond accounts for its gravitational interactions. The Stoics were not aware of these precise physical details, but did maintain that the properties of "things [that] stand outside of us"- such as a diamond - were caused by an active principle. The active principle was called pneuma, a physical rather than spiritual substance in nature, and associated with soul. In this sense then a diamond has a soul. Without soul the diamond would be entirely inert, invisible, without mass, and unable to interact in any way with anything else. While the Stoics maintain that the elements of nature are animate, the soul of a diamond is not rational. It is in a sense in a state of unconscious bliss, incapable of judgment and unaware of its existence. This is an important point. In many polytheistic traditions inanimate forces and elements in nature were accorded judging powers and even deified. Nature and her components (sun, sea, wind, animals) were alive and powerful, and needed to be placated, worshiped and appeased with sacrifices. So, in the tradition of Greco-Roman polytheism this statement can be regarded as a radical and rational break with the past. Nature is indeed magnificent and powerful and beautiful. But the elements of nature are not rational. The elements and forces of nature are unaware of themselves and certainly cannot make judgments of themselves or of human beings. There is no room in Stoicism for superstition.

(2) Human beings also have souls. But unlike the soul of a diamond, the human soul is rational. It, like the soul of the diamond, comes from the active aspect of nature, the physical laws that govern the activity of all physical elements. But, unlike the soul of the diamond, the human soul has this additional property: it can reject nature. It can act in ways that are contrary to the will of nature. This freedom to judge is unique to all sentient life (Stoics did not presume that human beings were the only form of sentient life in the universe). It accounts for the consciousness that only sentient beings can sense. The bliss that humans can access is not the unconscious bliss of a rock or a diamond, it is the sublime conscious bliss that Stoics call eudomia or happiness. Happiness is not automatic. Because our ruling faculty allows judgment, we can reject nature, but with this we will also reject happiness. But, in the lonely spirit of Diamonds and Rust by Joan Baez, in doing this we can know then only the rust of despair that comes from our alienation from love, and from nature. Happiness is accorded to those who act in accord with the Law. What comes naturally and automatically to a diamond, must be freely chosen by a human being.

Russell McNeil, PhD, is the author of The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius: Selections Annotated and Explained by Skylight Paths Publishing. The unpublished selections presented in this Blog are provided as supplemental material to the published selections which are annotated and explained in the book. The published selections are referenced in this Blog by page number and section.

The Tragic Christians - The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius - Unpublished Selections Explained, Med. XI.03

Meditation XI.03 - The Tragic Christians - Translated by George Long and rewritten by Russell McNeil

What a soul that is which is ready, if at any moment it must be separated from the body, and ready either to be extinguished or dispersed or continue to exist;¹ but so that this readiness comes from your own judgment, not from mere obstinacy, as with the Christians,² but considerately and with dignity and in a way to persuade another, without tragic show.³

Explanation

(1) This statement should not imply Stoic confusion about an afterlife. There is no afterlife in the Stoic scheme. As Marcus implies throughout the meditations, the goal of living is happiness, and that happiness is a state that is not bound to a temporal metric. If it were, this would imply that happiness is somehow imperfect. The Christian scheme promises a life everlasting. The Stoics find this entirely unnecessary, and, frankly, illogical. If happiness must endure forever to be perfect, then happiness that does not endure must be imperfect. The reward for virtue in Stoicism is a serenity that can not be tarnished - or improved - by duration. Happiness simply is. And then we die. Still, the jury was out (and to be honest might always be out in any religious sense) on the issue of what happens to the human soul after death.

Stoicism is a materialistic philosophy - not a religion. The soul is a material entity, and - in theory at least - measurable, using the tools of physics. Those tools were not available in the second century. As discussed further in Meditation XI.16, the ancient Stoics would likely have seized on modern electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) and related tools as useful ways to measure brain rhythms, which, they certainly would have hypothesized as direct or indirect analogs of the activity of the soul. At the very least they would have studied these rhythms in their attempts to uncover the underlying laws of nature governing human activity. In effect Stoic physics would take on the same program as modern physics - but with a different goal. The question of whether the soul retained its integrity after death would probably have been resolved in the negative - had they had access to those tools. The forces and fields responsible for those activities are in fact not destroyed at death (energy is conserved - and the Stoics were intuitively aware of this), but, consistent with the second law of thermodynamics (the law of entropy increase - and the Stoics were also intuitively aware of this law as well), the cohesion of those forces and fields is certainly dispersed when the body dies and decomposes.

(2) Marcus Aurelius was irritated with the newly emergent Christian cult and its pernicious undermining of Roman traditions. While it is true that Christian and Stoic values seem to converge in many ways, this was due more to the appropriation of Stoic philosophy by the early Christian fathers in the early centuries of the Christian Church. From the perspective of Marcus, the Christians were a bizarre cult infested with a cohort of followers who seemed to seek death at every turn. Marcus's comment that our readiness for death ought to come "from your own judgment, not from mere obstinacy, as with the Christians," alludes to the unreasoned willingness that Christians appeared to display in seeking death in the name of their crucified leader. This was - to Marcus - patently illogical and irrational (and in his mind would have probably seemed as illogical and irrational as the willingness shown by the followers of a modern cult figure, such as Jim Jones). A Stoic is always ready to die, and will never fear death. But no good Stoic should seek death in the name of an absent leader in return for a new life in another kingdom - a kingdom which the Stoics clearly rejected.

(3) The Christians died as martyrs and did so in the name of their leader, Jesus Christ, and did so (in Marcus's view) not to persuade others, but to seek their eternal (and irrational) reward. Death - to Marcus - would be welcome to any Stoic and embraced, if death brought virtue and honor to the actor, or served to show others how one ought to live. The sacrificial deaths of Christians were to Marcus nothing more than a useless and "tragic show."

Russell McNeil, PhD, is the author of The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius: Selections Annotated and Explained by Skylight Paths Publishing. The unpublished selections presented in this Blog are provided as supplemental material to the published selections which are annotated and explained in the book. The published selections are referenced in this Blog by page number and section.

The Gods - The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius - Unpublished Selections Explained, Med. XII.28

Meditation XII.28 - The Gods - Translated by George Long and rewritten by Russell McNeil

To those who ask, 'Where have you seen the gods,¹ or how do you comprehend that they exist and so worship them?' I answer, in the first place, they may be seen even with the eyes;² in the second place, neither have I seen even my own soul and yet I honor it.³ Thus then with respect to the gods, from what I constantly experience of their power, from this I comprehend that they exist and I venerate them.⁴

Explanation

(1) In his capacity as Emperor, Marcus Aurelius would be expected to proclaim and protect the official state religion and maintain his allegiance to a polytheistic mix of gods from several cultural traditions. In his capacity as a Stoic philosopher Marcus generally makes reference to a single divine entity, the universal intelligence or Logos. This meditation offers an example of the ways in which he would reconcile what might seem irreconcilable positions.

(2) Perhaps Marcus is being cagey here. When we look at nature closely and deeply, we see the actions or affects of the operation of reason on a grand scale. Because the Stoic associates these actions of natural law as guided by a perfect and immutable material essence (Logos), he can claim that, at the very least, he has witnessed the acts of a divine power. From an evidential perspective, if those actions can only be performed by a divine power, then to witness the actions of nature is to witness the divinity. Taking this one step further, The reference to the "eyes" need not mean the physical eye, but the eye of reason in each of us. Since that eye is itself distilled from Logos and is in each of us, the witness Marcus refers to here is something that occurs every time we engage in meditation because the meditative act requires an internal withdrawal into the source of our humanity, our soul.

(3) Marcus can not see that which is really formless. So it makes no sense to see the soul. But the soul animates the body, and we do certainly witness the actions of the body, and we do know that those actions can only be attributed therefore to actions of the soul. From this perspective we must therefore honor the soul. This is fairly obvious. We can witness the fall of an apple from a tree and attribute that action to gravity, a very real physical force which we have no trouble honoring - even though we will never see gravity. In the Stoic scheme this same force would be evidence of the operation of Logos.

(4) A modern Stoic might readily reconcile the powers of the gods as simply the several manifestations of the various forces of nature in their various modern guises. In this sense the existence and veneration of the gods Marcus refers to here, is nothing more than an acknowledgment of the existence of the several forces of nature, which in antiquity were many. A modern Stoic might also recognize that the several forces of nature as currently understood in modern physics (gravity, electric, nuclear, weak, strong, etc.) might well be the manifestation of a single unified power that expresses itself in varying ways.

Russell McNeil, PhD, is the author of The Meditations of Marcus Aurelius: Selections Annotated and Explained by Skylight Paths Publishing. The unpublished selections presented in this Blog are provided as supplemental material to the published selections which are annotated and explained in the book. The published selections are referenced in this Blog by page number and section.

Zoroaster (c 660 BCE-c 600 BCE)

Quotation
Suffer no anxiety, for he who is a sufferer of anxiety becomes regardless of enjoyment of the world and the spirit, and contraction happens to his body and soul.

Books

Please browse our Amazon list of titles about Zoroaster. For rare and hard to find works we recommend our Alibris list of titles about Zoroaster.

Research

COPAC UK: Zoroaster
Library of Congress: Zoroaster
Other Library Catalogs: Zoroaster

Biographical

Zoroaster, one of the great teachers of the East, the founder of Zoroastrianism (see below), which was the national religion of the Perso-Iranian people from the time of the Achaemenidae to the close of the Sassanian period. The name is the corrupt Greek form of the old Iranian Zarathustra (new Persian, Zardushi). Its signification is obscure; but it certainly contains the word ushtra, "camel."

Evidence of his life

Zoroaster was already famous in classical Antiquity as the founder of the widely renowned wisdom of the Magi. His name is not mentioned by Herodotus in his sketch of the Mado-Persian religion (i. 131 seq.). It occurs for the first time in a fragment of Xanthus (29), and in the Alcibiades of Plato (i. p. 122), who calls him the son of Oromazdes. For occidental writers, Zoroaster is always the Magus, or the founder of the whole Magian system (Plut. de Is. et Osir. 46 ; Plat. loc. cit.; Diog. Laërt. prooem. 2; the passages in Jackson's Zoroaster, 6 seq.). They sometimes call him a Bactrian, sometimes a Median or Persian (cf. Jackson, op. cit. 186). The ancients also recount a few points regarding the childhood of Zoroaster and his hermit-life. Thus, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist. vii. 15), he laughed on the very day of his birth - a statement found also in the Zardus/it-Nama - and lived in the wilderness upon cheese (xi. 97). Plutarch speaks of his intercourse with the deity, and compares him with Lycurgus and Numa (Numa, 4). Dio Chrysostom, Plutarch's contemporary, declares that neither Homer nor Hesiod sang of the chariot and horses of Zeus so worthily as Zoroaster, of whom the Persians tell that, out of love to wisdom and righteousness, he withdrew himself from men, and lived in solitude upon a mountain. The mountain was consumed by fire, but Zoroaster escaped uninjured and spoke to the multitude (vol. ii. p. 60). Plutarch, drawing partly on Theopompus, speaks of his religion in his Isis and Osiris (cc. 46 - 47). He gives a faithful sketch of the doctrines, mythology and dualistic system of the Magian Zoroaster.

As to the period in which he lived, most of the Greeks have already lost the true perspective. Hermodorus and Hermippus of Smyrna place him 5000 years before the Trojan war, Xanthus 6000 years before Xerxes, Eudoxus and Aristotle 6000 years before the death of Plato. Agathias remarks (ii. 24), with perfect truth, that it is no longer possible to determine with any certainty when he lived and legislated. "The Persians," he adds, "say that Zoroaster lived under Hystaspes, but do not make it clear whether by this name they mean the father of Darius or another Hystaspes. But, whatever may have been his date, he was their teacher and instructor in the Magian religion, modified their former religious customs, and introduced a variegated and composite belief."

He is nowhere mentioned in the cuneiform inscriptions of the Achaemeidae, although Darius and his successors were without doubt devoted adherents of Zoroastrianism. The Avesta is, indeed, our principal source for the doctrine of Zoroaster; on the subject of his person and his life it is comparatively reticent; with regard to his date it is, naturally enough, absolutely silent. The 13th section, or Spena Nash, which was mainly consecrated to the description of his life, has perished; while the biographies founded upon it in the 7th book of the Dinkard (9th century AD), the Shdh-Nama, and the Zardusht-Nama (13th century), are thoroughly legendary - full of wonders, fabulous histories and miraculous deliverances.

Under all circumstances we must imitate the ancient authors in holding fast to the historic personality of Zoroaster; though he - -like many another name of the dim past - has failed to escape the fate of being regarded as a purely mythical creation (for instance, by Kern and by Darmesteter, in the Sacred Books of the East, vol. iv. 1880, introd. 76). According to Darmesteter, the Zarathustra of the Avesta is a mere myth, a divinity invested with human attributes, an incarnation of the storm-god, who with his divine word, the thunder, comes and smites the demons. Darmesteter has failed to realize sufficiently the distinction between the Zoroaster of the later Avesta and the Zoroaster of the Gathas. It cannot be denied that in the later Avesta, and still more in writings of more recent date, he is presented in a legendary light and endowed with superhuman powers. At his appearing all nature rejoices (Yasht, 13, 93); he enters into conflict with the demons and rids the earth of their presence (Yasht, 17,19); Satan approaches him as tempter to make him renounce his faith (Vendidad, 19, 6).

The Gathas alone within the Avesta make claim to be the ipsissima verba of the prophet; in the rest of that work they are put into Zoroaster's own mouth (Yasna, 9, I) and are expressly called "the Gathas of the holy Zoroaster" (Yasea, 57, 8). The litanies of the Yasna, and the Yashts, refer to him as a personage belonging to the past. The Vendidad also merely gives accounts of the dialogues between Ormazd and Zoroaster. The Gathas alone claim to be authentic utterances of Zoroaster, his actual expressions in presence of the assembled congregation. They are the last genuine survivals of the doctrinal discourses with which - as the promulgator of a new religion - he appeared at the court of King Vishtaspa.

The person of the Zoroaster whom we meet with in these hymns differs toto coelo from the Zoroaster of the younger Avesta. He is the exact opposite of the miraculous personage of later legend - a mere man, standing always on the solid ground of reality, whose only arms are trust in his God and the protection of his powerful allies, At times his position is precarious enough. He whom we hear in the Gathas has had to face, not merely all forms of outward opposition and the unbelief and lukewarmness of adherents, but also the inward misgivings of his own heart as to the truth and final victory of his cause. At one time hope, at another despondency, now assured confldence, now doubt and despair, here a firm faith in the speedy coming of the kingdom of heaven, there the thought of taking refuge by flight - such is the range of the emotions which find their immediate expression in these hymns.

And the whole breathes such a genuine originality, all is psychologically so accurate and just, the earliest beginnings of the new religious movement, the childhood of a new community of faith, are reflected so naturally in them all, that it is impossible for a moment to think of a later period of composition by a priesthood whom we know to have been devoid of any historical sense, and incapable of reconstructing the spiritual conditions under which Zoroaster lived. So soon as the point of view is clear - that in the Gathas we have firm historical ground on which Zoroaster and his surroundings may rest, that here we have the beginnings of the Zoroastrian religion - then it becomes impossible to answer otherwise than affirmatively every general question as to the historical character of Zoroaster. Yet we must not expect too much from the Gathas in the way of definite detail. They give no historical account of the life and teaching of their prophet, but rather are, so to say, versus inemoriales, which recapitulate the main points of interest, often again in brief outlines. They are more of general admonitions, asseverations, solemn prophecies, sometimes directed to the faithful flock or to the princes, but generally cast in the form of dialogues with God and the archangels, whom he repeatedly invokes as witnesses to his veracity. Moreover, they contain many allusions to personal events which later generations have forgotten. It must be remembered, too, that their extent is limited, and their meaning, moreover, frequently dubious or obscure.

The Person of the Prophet

As to his birthplace the testimonies are conflicting. According to the Avesta (Yasna, 9, 17), Airyanem Vaejah, on the river Ditya, the old sacred country of the gods, was the home of Zoroaster, and the scene of his first appearance. There, on the river Darejya, assuming that the passage (Vend., 19. 4) is correctly interpreted, stood the house of his father; and the Bundahish (20, 32 and 24, 15) says expressly that the river Dhraja lay in Airan Vej, on its bank was the dwelling of his father, and that there Zoroaster was born. Now, according to the Bundahish, Airan Vej was situated in the direction of Atropatene, and consequently Airyanem Vaejah is for the most part identified with the district of Arran on the river Aras (Araxes), close by the north-western frontier of Media. Other traditions, however, make him a native of Rai. According to Yasna, 59, 18, the zarathushtrotema, or supreme head of the Zoroastrian priesthood, had at a later (Sassanian) time, his residence in Ragha. The Arabic writer Shahrastani endeavours to bridge the divergence between the two traditions by means of the following theory: his father was a man of Atropatene, while the mother was from Rai. In his home tradition recounts he enjoyed the celestial visions and the conversations with the archangels and Ormazd which are mentioned already in the Gathas. There, too, according to Yasna, 5, 105, he prayed that he might succeed in converting King Vishtaspa. He then appears to have quitted his native district. On this point the Avesta is wholly silent: only one obscure passage (Yasna, 53, 9) seems to intimate that he found an ill reception in Rai. Finally, in. the persoi of Vishtaspa, who seems to have been a prince resident in east Iran, he gained the powerful protector and faithful disciple of the new religion whom he desired - though after almost superhuman dangers and difficulties, which the later books depict in lively colours. According to the epic legend, Vishtaspa was king of Bactria. Already in the later Avesta he has become a half-mythical figure, the last in the series of heroes of east Iranian legend, in the arrangement of which series priestly influence is unmistakably evident. He stands at the meeting point between the old world and the new era which begins with Zoroaster. In the Gathas he appears as a quite historical personage; it is essentially to his power and good example that the prophet is indebted for his success. In Yasna, 53, 2. he is spoken of as a pioneer of the doctrine revealed by Ormazd. In the relation between Zoroaster and Vishtaspa already lies the germ of the state church which afterwards became completely subservient to the interests of the dynasty and sought its protection from it.

Among the grandees of the court of Vishtaspa mention is made of two brothers, Frashaoshtra and Jamaspa; both were, according to the later legend, vizirs of Vishtaspa. Zoroaster was nearly related to both: his wife, Hvövi, was the daughter of Frashaoshtra, and the husband of his daughter, Pourucista, was Jamaspa. The actual role of intermediary was played by the pious queen Hutaosa. Apart from this connexion, the new prophet relies especially upon his own kindred (hvaëtush). His, first disciple, Maidhyoimaongha, was his cousin: his father was, according to the later Avesta, Pourushaspa, his mother Dughdova, his great-grandfather Haecataspa, and the ancestor of the whole family Spitama, for which reason Zarathushtra usually bears this surname. His sons and daughters are repeatedly spoken of. His death is, for reasons easily intelligible, nowhere mentioned in the Avesta; in the Shah-Na'ma he is said to have been murdered at the altar by the Turanians in the storming of Balkh.

We are quite ignorant as to the date of Zoroaster; King Vishtaspa does not seem to have any place in any historical chronology, and the Gathas give no hint on the subject. In former times the assertion often was, and even now is often put forward, that Vishtaspa was one and the same person with the historical Hystaspes, father of Darius I. This identification can only be purchased at the cost of a complete renunciation of the Avestan genealogy.

Hutaosa is the same name as Atossa: but in history Atossa was the wife of Cambyses and Darius, Otherwise, not one single name in the entourage of our Vishtaspa can be brought into harmony with historical nomenclature. According to the Arda Viraf, I, 2, Zoroaster taught, in round numbers, some 300 years before the invasion of Alexander. The testimony of Assyrian inscriptions relegates him to a far more ancient period. If these prove the name Mazdaka to have formed part of Median proper names in the year 715 BC, Eduard Meyer (v. Ancient Persia) is justified in maintaining that the Zoroastrian religion must even then have been predominant in Media. Meyer, therefore, conjecturally puts the date of Zoroaster at 1000 BC, as had already been done by Duncker (Geschichte des Altertums, 44, 78). This, in its turn, may be too high: but, in any case, Zoroaster belongs to a prehistoric era. Probably he emanated from the old school of Median Magi, and appeared first in Media as the prophet of a new faith, but met with sacerdotal opposition, and turned his steps eastward. In the east of Iran the novel creed first acquired a solid footing, and subsequently reacted with success upon the West.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroaster taught a new religion; but this must not be taken as meaning that everything he taught came, so to say, out of his own head. His doctrine was rooted in the old Iranian - or Aryan - folk-religion, of which we can only form an approximate representation by comparison with the religion of the Veda. The newly discovered Hittite inscriptions have now thrown a welcome ray of light on the primitive Iranian creed (Ed. Meyer, Sitzungsberichie der Preuss. Akadeinie, 1908). In these inscriptions Mitra, Varuna, and Indra are mentioned as deities of the Iranian kings of Mitaiii at the beginning of the I4th century - all of them names with which we are familiar from the Indian pantheon. The Aryan folk religion was polytheistic. Worship was paid to popular divinities, such as the war-god and dragon-slayer Indra, to natural forces and elements such as fire, but the Aryans also believed in the ruling of moral powers and of an eternal law in nature (v. Ed. Meyer in the article Persia: History, § Ancient). On solemn occasions the inspiring drink soma (haoma) ministered to the enjoyment of the devout. Numerous coincidences with the Indian religion survive in Zoroastrianism, side by side with astonishing diversities.

The most striking difference between Zoroaster's doctrine of God and the old religion of India lies in this, that while in the Avesta the evil spirits are called do-eva (Modern Persian dry), the Aryans of India, in common with the Italians, Celts and Letts, gave the name of dëva to their good spirits, the spirits of light. An alternative designation for deity in the Rigveda is asura. In the more recent hymns of the Rig-Veda and in later India, on the other hand, only evil spirits are understood by asuras, while in Iran the corresponding word ahura was and ever has continued to be, the designation of God the Lord. Thus ahura-daëva, dëva-asura in Zoroastrian and in later Brahman theology are in their meanings diametrically opposed.

Asura-daiva represent originally two distinct races of gods (like the Northern Aser and Vaner) - two different aspects of the conception of deity. Asura indicates the more sublime and awful divine character, for which man entertains the greater reverence and fear: do-ira denotes the kind gods of light, the vulgar - more sensuous and anthropomorphic - deities. This twofold development of the idea of God formed the point of leverage for Zoroaster's reformation. While in India the conception of the asura had veered more and more towards the dreadful and the dreaded, Zoroaster elevated it again - at the cost, indeed, of the daivas (daëvas), whom he degraded to the rank of malicious powers and devils. In one Asura, whose Aryan original was Varuna, he concentrated the whole of the divine character, and conferred upon it the epithet of "the wise" (mazddo). This culminating stage in the asura-conception is the work of Zoroaster. The Wise Lord (Ahurö Mazdao - later Orsnazd) is the primeval spiritual being, the All-father, who was existent before ever the world arose. From him that world has emanated, and its course is governed by his foreseeing eye. His guiding spirit is the Holy Spirit, which wills the good: yet it is not free, but restricted, in this temporal epoch, by its antagonist and own twin-brother (Yasna, 30, 3), the Evil Spirit (angro mainyush, Aliriman), who in the beginning was banished by the Good Spirit by means of the famous ban contained in Yasna, 45, 2, and since then drags out his existence in the darkness of Hell as the principle of ill - the arch-devil. In the Gathas the Good Spirit of Mazda and the Evil Spirit are the two great opposing forces in the world, and Ormazd himself is to a certain extent placed above them both. Later the Holy Spirit is made directly equivalent to Ormazd; and then the great watchword is: "Here Ormazd, there Ahrimanl." The very do-eras are only the inferior instruments, the corrupted children of Ahriman, from whom come all that is evil in the world. The daevas, unmasked and attacked by Zoroaster as the true enemies of mankind, are still, in the Gathäs, without doubt the perfectly definite gods of old popular belief - the idols of the people. For Zoroaster they sink to the rank of spurious deities, and in his eyes their priests and votaries are idolaters and heretics. In the later, developed system the daevas are the evil spirits in general, and their number has increased to millions. Some few of these have names; and among those names of the old Aryan divinities emerge here and there, e.g. Indra and N5.oiihaitya. With some, of course - such as the god of fire - the connection with the good deity was a priori indissoluble. Other powers of light, such as Mitra the god of day (Iranian Mithra), survived unforgotten in popular belief till the later system incorporated them in the angelic body. The authentic doctrine of the Gflthgs had no room either for the cult of Mithra or for that of the Haoma. Beyond the Lord and his Fire, the Gathäs only recognize the archangels and certain ministers of Ormazd, who are, without exception, personifications of abstract ideas. This hypostasization and all-egotization is especially characteristic of the Zoroastrian religion. The essence of Ormazd is Truth and Law asha = Vedicrta): this quality he embodies, and its personification (though conceived as sexless) is always by his side, a constant companion and intimate. The essence of the wicked spirit is falsehood: and falsehood, as the embodiment of the evil principle, is much more frequently mentioned in the Gäthäs than Ahriman himself.

Zoroaster says of himself that he had received from God a commission to purify religion (Yasna, 44, 9). He purified it I from the grossly sensual elements of daëva worship, and uplifted the idea of religion to a higher and purer sphere. The motley body of Aryan folk-belief, when subjected to the unifying thought of a speculative brain, was transformed to a selfcontained theory of the universe and a logical dualistic principle. But this dualism is a temporally limited dualism - no more than an episode in the worid-whole - and is destined to terminate in monotheism. Later sects sought to rise from it to a higher unity in other ways. Thus the Zarvanites represented Ormazd and Ahriman as twin sons proceeding from the fundamental principle of all - Zrvana Akarana, or limitless time.

Ethically, too, the new doctrine stands on a higher plane, and represents, in its moral laws, a superior civilization. The devil-worshippers, at their sacrifices, slay the ox; and this the datvas favour, for they are foes to the cattle and to cattlebreeding, and friends to those who work ill to the cow. In Zoroaster's eyes this is an abomination: for the cow is a gift of Ormazd to man, and the religion of Mazda protects the sacred animal. It is the religion of the settled grazier and the peasant, while the ruder daeva-cult holds its ground among the uncivilized nomadic tribes. In an old confession of faith, the convert is pledged to abjure the theft and robbery of cattle and the ravaging of villages inhabited by worshippers of Mazda (Yasna, 12, 2).

Zoroaster's teachings show him to have been a man of a highly speculative turn, faithful, however, with all his originality, to the Iranian national character. With zeal for the faith, and boldness and energy, he combined diplomatic skill in his dealings with his exalted protectors. His thinking is consecutive, self-restrained, practical, devoid of everything that might be called fantastic or excessive. His form of expression is tangible and concrete: his system is constructed on a clearly conceived plan and stands on a high moral level; for its time it was a great advance in civilization. The doctrine of Zoroaster and the Zoroastrian Church may be summarized somewhat as follows:- At the beginning of things there existed the two spirits who represented good and evil (Yasna, 30, 3). The existence of evil in the world is thus presupposed from the beginning. Both spirits possess creative power, which manifests itself positively in the one and negatively in the other. Ormazd is light and life, and creates all that is pure and good - in the ethical world of law, order and truth. His antithesis is darkness, filth, death, and produces all that is evil in the world. Until then the two spirits had counterbalanced one another. The ultimate triumph of the good spirit is an ethical demand of the religious consciousness and the quintessence of Zoroaster's religion.

The evil spirit with his wicked hosts appears in the Gathas much less endowed with the attributes of personality and individuality than does Ahura Mazda. Within the world of the good Ormazd is Lord and God alone. In this sense Zoroastrianism is often referred to as the faith of Ormazd or as Mazdaism. Ormazd in his exalted majesty is the ideal figure of an Oriental king. He is not alone in his doings and conflicts, but has in conjunction with himself a number of genii - for the most part personifications of ethical ideas. These are his creatures, his instruments, servants and assistants. They are comprehended under the general name of ameshd spenta ("immortal holy ones") and are the prototypes of the seven amshas ponds of a later date. These are:

• Vohu Manö (efr'oia), good sense, i.e. the good principle, the idea of the good, the principle that works in man inclining him to what is good;
• Ashem, afterwards Ashem Vahishtem (Plutarch), the genius of truth and the embodiment of all that is true, good and right, upright law and rule - ideas practically identical for Zoroaster;
• Khshathrem, afterwards Khshathrem Vairim (dwouia), the power and kingdom of Ormazd, which have subsisted from the first but not in integral completeness, the evil having crept in like tares among the wheat: the time is yet to come when it shall be fully manifested in all its unclouded majesty;
• Armaiti, due reverence for the divine, verecundia, spoken of as daughter of Ormazd and regarded as having her abode upon the earth;
• Haurvatat, perfection;
• Ameretat, immortality. Other ministering angels are Geush Urvan ("the genius and defender of animals"), and Sraosha, the genius of obedience and faithful hearing.

As soon as the two separate spirits (cf. Bundahish, I, 4) encounter one another, their creative activity and at the same time their permanent conflict begin. The history of this conflict is the history of the world. A great cleft runs right through the world: all creation divides itself into that which is Ahura's and that which is Ahrirnan's. Not that the two spirits carry on the struggle in person; they leave it to be fought out by their respective creations and creatures which they sent into the field. The field of battle is the present world.

In the centre of battle is man: his soul is the object of the war. Man is a creation of Ormazd. who therefore has the right to call him to account. But Ormazd created him free in his determinations and in his actions, wherefore he is accessible to the influences of the evil powers. This freedom of the will is clearly expressed in Yasna, 31, II: "Since thou, O Mazda, didst at the first create our being and our consciences in accordance with thy mind, and didst create our understanding and our life together with the body, and works and words in which man according to his own will can frame his confession, the liar and the truth-speaker alike lay hold of the word, the knowing and the ignorant each after his own heart and understanding. Armaiti searches, following thy spirit, where errors are found." Man takes part in this conflict by all his life and activity in the world. By a true confession of faith, by every good deed, word and thought, by continually keeping pure his body and his soul, he impairs the power of Satan and sti-engthens the might of goodness, and establishes a claim for reward upon Ormazd; by a false confession, by every evil deed, word and thought and defilement, he increases the evil and renders service to Satan.

The life of man falls into two parts - its earthly portion and that which is lived after death is past. The lot assigned to him after death is the result and conseqtience of his life upon earth. No religion has so clearly grasped the ideas of guilt and of merit. On the works of men here below a strict reckoning will be held in heaven (according to later representations, by Rashnu, the genius of justice, and Mithra). All the thoughts, words and deeds of each are entered in the book of life as separate items - -all the evil works, &c., as debts. Wicked actions cannot be undone, but in the heavenly account can be counterbalanced by a surplus of good works. It is only in this sense that an evil deed can be atoned for by a good deed. Of a real remission of sins the old doctrine' of Zoroaster knows nothing, whilst the later Zoroastrian Church admits repentance, expiation and remission. After death the soul arrives at the chinvat peretu, or accountant's bridge, over which lies the way to heaven. Here the statement of his life account is made out. If he has a balance of good works in his favour, he passes forthwith into paradise (Garo dernana) and the blessed life. If his evil works outweigh his good, he falls finally under the power of Satan, ‘and the pains of hell are his portion for ever. Should the evil and the good be equally balanced, the soul passes into an intermediary stage of existence (the Hamstakans of the Pahiavi books) and its final lot is not decided until the last judgment. The course of inexorable law cannot be turned aside by any sacrifice or offering, nor yet even by the free grace of God.

But man has been smitten with blindness and ignorance: he knows neither the eternal law nor the things which await him after death. He allows himself too easily to be ensnared by the craft of the evil powers who seek to ruin his future existence. He worships and serves false gods, being unable to distinguish between truth and lies. Therefore it is that Ormazd in his grace determined to open the eyes of mankind by sending a prophet to lead them by the right way, the way of salvation. According to later legend (Vd., 2, 1), Ormazd at first wished to entrust this task to Yima (Jemshid), the ideal of an Iranian king. But Yima, the secular man, felt himself unfitted for it and declined it. He contented himself therefore with establishing in his paradise (vara) a heavenly kingdom in miniature, to serve at the same time as a pattern for the heavenly kingdom that was to come. Zoroaster at last, as being a spiritual man, was found fit for the mission. He experienced within himself the inward call to seek the amelioration of mankind and their deliverance from ruin, and regarded this inner impulse, intensified as it was by long, contemplative solitude and by visions, as being the call addressed to him by God Himself. Like Mahommed after him he often speaks of his conversations with God and the archangels. He calls himself most frequently manthran ("prophet") ratu ("spiritual authority"), and scoshyant ("the coming helper" - that is to say, when men come to be judged according to their deeds).

The full contents of his dogmatic and ethical teaching we cannot gather from the Gathas. He speaks for the most part only in general references of the divine commands and of good and evil works. Among the former those most inculcated are renunciation of Satan, adoration of Ormazd, purity of soul and body, and care of the cow. We learn little otherwise regarding the practices connected with his doctrines. A ceremonial worship is hardly mentioned. He speaks more in the character of prophet than in that of lawgiver. The contents of the Gathas are essentially eschatological. Revelations concerning the last things and the future lot, whether bliss or woe, of human souls, promises for true believers, threatenings for misbelievers, his firm confidence as to the future triumph of the good - such are the themes continually dwelt on with endless variations.

It was not without special reason - so Zoroaster believed - that the calling of a prophet should have taken place precisely when it did. It was, he held, the final appeal of Ormazd to mankind at large. Like John the Baptist and the Apostles of Jesus, Zoroaster also believed that the fullness of time was near, that the kingdom of heaven was at hand. Throurh the whole of the Gathas runs the pious hope that the end of the present world is not far distant. He himself hopes, with his followers, to live to see the decisive turn of things, the dawn of the new and better aeon. Ormazd will summon together all his powers for a final decisive struggle and break the power of evil for ever; by his help the faithful will achieve the victory over their detested enemies, the daëva worshippers, and render them impotent. Thereupon Ormazd will hold a judicium universale, in the form of a general ordeal, a great test of all mankind by fire and molten metal, and will judge strictly according to justice, punish the wicked, and assign to the good the hoped-for reward. Satan will be cast, along with all those who have been delivered over to him to suffer the pains of hell, into the abyss, where he will henceforward lie powerless. Forthwith begins the one undivided kingdom of God in heaven and on earth. This is called, sometimes the good kingdom, sometimes simply the kingdom. Here the sun will for ever shine, and all the pious and faithful will live a happy life, which no evil power can disturb, in the eternal fellowship of Ormazd and his angels. Every believer will receive as his guerdon the inexhaustible cow and the gracious gifts of the Vohu malja. The prophet and his princely patrons will be accorded special honour.

History and Later Development

For the great mass of the people Zoroaster's doctrine was too abstract and spiritualistic. The vulgar fancy requires sensuous, plastic deities, which admit of visible representation; and so the old gods received honour again and new gods won acceptance. They are the angels (yazala) of New Zoroastrianism. Thus, in the later Avesta, we find not only Mithra but also purely popular divinities such as the angel of victory, Verethraghna, Anahita (Angitis), the goddess of the water, Tishrya (Sirius), and other heavenly bodies, invoked with special preference. The Ggthgs know nothing of a new belief which afterwards arose in the Fravas/zi, or guardian angels of the faithful. Fravashi properly means "confession of faith," and when personified comes to be regarded as a protecting spirit. Unbelievers have no fravashi.

On the basis of the new teaching arose a widely spread priesthood who systematized its doctrines, organized and carried on its worship, and laid down the minutely elaborated laws for the purifying and keeping clean of soul and body, which are met with in the Vendidad. To these ecclesiastical precepts and expiations belong in particular the numerous ablutions, bodily chastisements, love of truth, beneficial works, support of comrades in the faith, alms, chastity, improvement of the land, arboriculture, breeding of cattle, agriculture, protection of useful animals, as the dog, the destruction of noxious animals, and the prohibition either to burn or to bury the dead. These are to be left on the appointed places (dakhmas) and exposed to the vultures and wild dogs. In the worship the drink prepared from the haoma (Indian soma) plant had a prominent place. Worship in the Zoroastrian Church was devoid of pomp; it was independent of temples. Its centre was the holy fire on the altar. The fire altars afterwards developed to fire temples. In the sanctuary of these temples the various sacrifices and high and low masses were celebrated. As offerings meat, milk, show-bread, fruits, flowers and consecrated water were used. The priests were the privileged keepers and teachers of religion. They only performed the sacrifices (Herodotus, i. 132), educated the young clergy, imposed the penances; they in person executed the circumstantial ceremonies of purification and exercised a spiritual guardianship and pastoral care of the laymen. Every young believer in Mazda, after having been received into the religious community by being girt with the holy lace, had to choose a confessor and a spiritual guide (ratu).

Also in eschatology, as may be expected, a change took place. The last things and the end of the world are relegated to the close of a long period of time (3000 years after Zoroaster), when a new Saoshyant is to be born of the seed of the prophet, the dead are to come to life, and a new incorruptible world to begin.

Zoroastrianismn was the national religion of Iran, but it was not permanently restricted to the Iranians, being professed by Turanians as well. The worship of the Persian gods spread to Armenia and Cappadocia and over the whole of the Near East (Strabo, xv. 3, 14; xi. 8, 4; 14, 76). Of the Zoroastrian Church under the Achaemenides and Aeracides little is known. After the overthrow of the dynasty of the Achaemenides a period of decay seems to have set in. Yet the Aeracides and the Indo-Scythian kings as well as the Achaemenides were believers in Mazda. The national restoration of the Sasanides brought new life to the Zoroastrian religion and long-lasting sway to the Church. Protected by this dynasty, the priesthood developed into a completely organized state church, which was able to employ the power of the state in enforcing strict compliance with the religious law-book hitherto enjoined by their unaided efforts only. The head of the Church ~Lara-5husbtrotema) had his seat at Rai in Media and was the first person in the state next to the king. The formation of sects was at this period not infrequent (cf. Manichaeism). The Mohammedan invasion (636), with the terrible persecutions of the following centuries, was the death-blow of Zoroastrianism. In Persia itself only a few followers of Zoroaster, are now found (in Kerman and Yezd). The Parsees in and around Bombay hold by Zoroaster as their prophet and by the ancient religious usages, but their doctrine has reached the stage of a pure monotheism. [This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License and uses material adapted in whole or in part from the Wikipedia article on Zoroaster.]

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Brigham Young (1801-1877)

Quotation

There is no knowledge, no light, no wisdom that you are in possession of, but what you have received it from some source.

Books

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Biographical

Brigham Young (1801-1877) took over leadership of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints after the martyr of the church's founder, Joseph Smith. Young led the early members of the church westward to the Salt Lake Valley. Young was perhaps the most famous polygomist (polygynist specifically) of the early church. The exact number of his wives is still unknown. Though the church makes no apologies for its early practice, the modern church no longer tolerates polygamy. Any members found to be practicing it are excommunicated. In addition to founding the University of Utah, Young also organized the Mormon Tabernacle Choir. Brigham Young University is named after him. [The material above is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License and uses material adapted in whole or in part from the Wikipedia article on Brigham Young.]

Mormons: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is a Christian denomination which has headquarters in Salt Lake City, Utah. The church was founded in 1830 in the state of New York by Joseph Smith, Jr. and has since grown to a worldwide membership of over 11 million. The church is the largest by far of several groups claiming to be the legimate continutation of the religion founded by Joseph Smith. Members of the church hold that their faith is a divinely appointed restoration of the church founded by Jesus Christ in biblical times. They base their views on new revelation and scripture which they hold to be be revealed by God, and therefore as important as the books of the Bible. These books describe a previously unheard-of story: that Jesus Christ visited disciples in the Americas following his resurrection. These ancient Americans had been taught about Christ by a succession of prophets who foretold his coming. During his visit, Christ taught the people and performed miracles similar to those recorded in the New Testament. This story has been compared to Rastafarians's description of biblical connections for Ethiopia and claims during the height of the British Empire that the English were the Lost Tribe of Israel. Some hold that just as Christianity became a new religion after it introduced new scriptures to the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible, aka Old Testament), the Mormons developed a new religion when they added their new scriptures to the Christian Bible (which is composed of the Old Testament and the New Testament, and sometimes the Deuterocanon).

Name of the Church

Smith's church was originally called simply the "Church of Christ", later the "Church of Latter-day Saints", and finally the "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints". The Church is also commonly referred to as the "LDS church", and sometimes the "Mormon church", although this designation can be confusing, because groups outside the church are sometimes also referred to as "Mormons". The nickname comes from The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ, which the church accepts as scripture in addition to the Bible. Other LDS scriptures include The Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price. In 2001, the church requested that the official name, "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints" be used wherever possible, stating: "This full name was given by revelation from God to Joseph Smith in 1838." When referring to members of the church, they asked that the term "Latter-day Saints" be preferred, although "Mormons" is acceptable. Within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, all church members are called "Saints", and the membership of the church "The Saints". There is no concept of a Saint in the sense used by other Christians, only in the sense of a faithful follower of Christ. The original 12 followers of Jesus are referred to simply as the "Apostles".

God, Jesus Christ and the Holy Ghost

God the Father, Jesus the Christ, and the Holy Ghost are considered three separate and distinct personages that together form the Godhead (as distinct from the Trinity decreed by the First Council of Nicaea). They are all eternal and equal in divinity, although they do play somewhat different roles. God and Christ are believed to both have physical bodies, while the Holy Ghost is a spirit. Although it is not directly stated in the canonical scriptures, Joseph Smith and other church leaders have taught that God the Father is an exalted man who once lived on an earth. Though not mentioned in official doctrine, it is implied that God would have lived a life much as we do, living by the laws of that world's divine Creator, and that after his death and resurrection, after much time and progression, was given the responsibility of Godhood, with the opportunity to create "worlds without number". The creation story in Genesis would begin sometime after this point. The relationship between the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost is considered a very close one, because although they are physically separate beings, they share a spiritual unity of purpose. Mormons consider them to be one in the sense that they are perfectly unified in purpose and cooperation. Thus, there would never be any kind of conflict or disagreement between them. It is also believed, although it is seldom mentioned even within the church, that God is married to a Heavenly Mother. No reference is made to the status of the Heavenly Mother in terms of her divinity, nor is she mentioned in doctrine, scripture, or other church teachings. Her existence is referred to briefly in the church hymn titled "O My Father" (Hymn number 292). Her existence is a natural extension of church teachings that proclaim that each person is "a spirit son or daughter of heavenly parents," so her existence is acknowledged by church members and leadership. She is not worshipped or prayed to; her existence is simply acknowledged. Church members, supported by statements from leadership, believe that She is not mentioned, named, or talked about because God does not wish to have her name profaned, although this is not an official doctrine. Some other Christian faiths consider this belief system to be polytheism and at odds with classical forms of Christianity. Mormons hold that it is classical Christianity that misunderstands the nature of God.

The Plan of Salvation, Exaltation, Damnation and Eternal Progression

The Plan of Salvation is God's plan for the salvation of mankind, His children. Salvation occurs through Jesus Christ, as the Redeemer of mankind. The gift of immortality is believed to come to all through Christ's sacrifice on the Cross and his subsequent Resurrection. Although it is believed that immortality is a free gift to all people, entrance to the Heavenly Kingdom (referred to as the "Celestial Kingdom") comes to those who accept Christ through baptism into the church, and who live righteous lives. Faith alone is not considered sufficient to gain exaltation. Mormons do not use the cross as a symbol of their faith, saying that it is not Christ's death that is most important, but his life and resurrection.

Exaltation is the reward which the LDS church believes is given to righteous church members (including those who accept the Gospel in the afterlife). Through the process of exaltation, a person can eventually become a god and creator. It is believed that people who do not have the opportunity to accept the Gospel while on Earth will have another opportunity to do so in the afterlife. However, those who reject the Gospel while on Earth will have no such opportunity. The Celestial Kingdom (metaphorically glorious as the sun) is the place where righteous church members live with God and with their families.

Those good people who choose not to be valiant in following Jesus are not fit for exaltation, and will be consigned to (and indeed find themselves more comfortable in) the Terrestrial Kingdom (metaphorically compared to the moon's brightness). This place is believed to be one of great joy, but without the presence of God the Father. Murderers and other criminals also spend eternity with people of like intent, in the Telestial Kingdom (likened to the stars). This also is considered a kingdom of glory, and is described as being much more glorious than mortal life, perhaps because it is free from the sickness and want of mortality. A small number of truly evil people, who willingly reject what they know to be God's truth in its entirety, are believed to be consigned to the Outer Darkness at the final judgement - a place of no light (light being the common metaphor for truth). These are known as sons of perdition.

Repentance

Mormons believe in the principle of repentance, which for them includes a sincere regret as well as restitution when possible and reform of one's actions. It is considered important for a person to confess serious sins to their Bishop, who can also offer advice and encouragement in less serious matters. Key to the repentance process is a person's personal, prayerful confession to God, which includes asking for forgiveness and resolving not to repeat the mistake. When an act is repented of, but then recommitted, it is not a true repentance.

Baptism

The LDS Church practices baptism by immersion. It is believed that baptism is symbolic of a burial and rebirth as a disciple of Jesus Christ. Through this process, the person is believed to be cleansed of all previous sin and becomes a member of the church.

Baptism is always performed after the eighth birthday. The age of eight is considered the age when people can be responsible for their actions. The Book of Mormon specifically forbids the practice of infant baptism. Latter-day Saints also believe in the gift of the Holy Ghost. It is conferred as members of the priesthood place their hands on the head of the recipient and pronounce a blessing upon him or her. It is usually conferred shortly after baptism. Latter-day Saint fathers typically bless their babies shortly after birth when they are normally given a name and various blessings which the father calls for as he feels inspired. This blessing is not considered required for salvation and thus converts are not required to have this blessing.

Chapels and Temples

One must be a member in good standing in order to enter any of the Temples. However, the public is welcome to attend meetings in local chapels. Worship services, known as sacrament meetings, are held weekly. Every meeting includes a passing of the sacrament, similar to communion or the eucharist in various other churches. Meetings include the singing of hymns (accompanied by piano or organ) and two or three discourses by members. Although it is not required, women usually attend wearing skirts or dresses, while men wear dress shirts and ties. The temples are not used for regular meetings, but are primarily used for the performing of ceremonial ordinances that Mormons believe are essential for entering the Celestial Kingdom. The ordinances performed in the temples, including baptisms, are also done by proxy for those who have died. To obtain names of people for whom ordinances can be performed, the church encourages genealogical research and makes available its vast genealogical resources to nonmembers. Although it is not official doctrine, Mormons generally believe that ultimately (after the Second Coming) all people who have lived will have had ordinances performed for them. The ordinances are believed to have no effect, however, on those who decide they don't wish to receive the benefits of the Gospel.

Sealing

A sealing is a special ritual or ceremony which is held only in a Temple. During a Sealing, the members of a family, including parents and children, are bound together as a family which is believed to endure beyond death. The church teaches that a family which has been sealed in the Temple will remain a family even in Heaven. This is the belief which lies behind the well-known church slogan, "Familes are Forever."

Other Practices

Practices more or less distinctive to Mormons include following the Word of Wisdom (abstaining from alcohol, tobacco, tea and coffee and eating meat sparingly), tithing (giving 10 percent of one's income to the church), chastity (no sexual relations outside lawful marriage), modesty in dress, lay leadership (church officials are not paid, although reportedly some top national officials have their living expenses covered by the church), family home evenings (families are encouraged to meet weekly for prayer and other activities), and home and visiting teaching (members regularly visit other members in their homes for prayer and study). Tattoos and body piercings (except for one pair of earrings for women). Although there are no specific rules, church members also are encouraged to have children, so Mormon families tend to be larger than average. Prayers are to the Heavenly Father in the name of Christ. English-speaking members generally use "thee", "thou" and "thy" when addressing God. Young men (ages 19 to 26) are expected to go on a two-year, full-time proselytizing mission. Young women also may go on missions, and elderly couples are encouraged to do so as well. The church has about 60,000 missionaries worldwide.

The church places a strong emphasis on education and heavily subsidizes Brigham Young University and related schools. Church members also may wear special clothing or undergarments which they call the Garment of the Holy Priesthood. Only those who have attended the temple wear the garment. This clothing functions similarly to the ecclesiastic clothing worn by many other Christian groups, but because the church has a lay clergy, members wear this clothing under their normal attire.

The Priesthood

Priesthood in the LDS church has a different connotation than it does in most other churches, because all worthy males of the proper age may be ordained. There are two branches of the Priesthood, known as the Aaronic Priesthood and the Melchizedek Priesthood. The Aaronic Priesthood is considered a preparatory priesthood, and is given to men from age 12 onward, and the Melchizedek Priesthood is the "full" Priesthood, which is reserved for men over age 18. Mormons believe that the priesthood was given directly to Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery. The story, as given by Joseph Smith and as recorded in Joseph Smith - History, is as follows:

". . . we. . . went into the woods to pray and inquire of the Lord respecting baptism for the remission of sins, that we found mentioned in the translation of the plates [the Book of Mormon]. . . . While we were thus employed, praying and calling upon the Lord, a messenger from heaven descended in a cloud of light, and having laid his hands upon us, he ordained us, saying:

"Upon you my fellow servants, in the name of Messiah, I confer the Priesthood of Aaron, which holds the keys of the ministering of angels, and of the gospel of repentance, and of baptism by immersion for the remission of sins; and this shall never be taken again from the earth until the sons of Levi do offer again an offering unto the Lord in righteousness.

"He said this Aaronic Priesthood had not the power of laying on hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost, but that this should be conferred on us hereafter; and he commanded us to go and be baptized, and gave us directions that I should baptize Oliver Cowdery, and that afterwards he should baptize me.

"Accordingly we went and were baptized. . . .

"The messenger who visited us on this occasion and conferred this Priesthood upon us, said that his name was John, the same that is called John the Baptist in the New Testament, and that he acted under the direction of Peter, James and John, who held the keys of the Priesthood of Melchizedek, which Priesthood, he said, would in due time be conferred on us, and that I should be called the first Elder of the Church, and he (Oliver Cowdery) the second. . . .

"Immediately on our coming up out of the water after we had been baptized, we experienced great and glorious blessings from our Heavenly Father. No sooner had I baptized Oliver Cowdery, than the Holy Ghost fell upon him, and he stood up and prophesied many things which should shortly come to pass. And again, so soon as I had been baptized by him, I also had the spirit of prophecy, when, standing up, I prophesied concerning the rise of this Church, and many other things connected with the Church, and this generation of the children of men. We were filled with the Holy Ghost, and rejoiced in the God of our salvation."

Church Leadership

The LDS church is headed by the Prophet, a man who is believed to directly speak with God and receive his guidance in leading the church. The first Prophet of the church was Joseph Smith, Jr.. The Prophet serves for life, and after his death the next most senior apostle (in years served as an apostle) is ordained as his replacement. The Prophet is also the President and has two counsellors, the First Counselor and the Second Counselor. Together they are known as the First Presidency. Beneath the First Presidency is the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles. It was founded on February 14, 1835 in Kirtland, Ohio. There are also several Quorums of the Seventy. The original quorum of the seventy was founded February 28, 1835. At the local level, each Stake, made up of a number of congregations, is led by a Stake President and his two counselors, the "Stake Presidency." Each congregation (known as a "ward", or a "branch" if it is very small) is led by a Bishop and his counselors, called the "Bishopric" (or by a branch president and his counselors).

Scriptures

Under the Church's doctrine of continuing revelation, the Church has an open canon which currently includes the Bible, the Book of Mormon, Doctrine and Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price, which together form the Standard Works. English-speaking members use the King James Version of the Bible; the Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible is widely referred to but technically isn't canonical. Other scriptures are expected to be added to the cannon from time to time. One example is the translation of the remaining two-thirds of the gold plates from which the Book of Mormon was translated. Viewed as authoritative but again technically not canonical are some proclamations by the church leadership, including the 1995 "The Family: A Proclamation to the World" and the 2000 "The Living Christ."

Catholic Perspective

Joseph Smith, the founder and first president of the sect, was the son of a Vermont farmer, and was born in Sharon township, Windsor County, in that state, on 23 December, 1805. In the spring of 1820, while living with his parents at Manchester, Ontario (now Wayne) County, New York, he became deeply concerned upon the subject of his salvation, a condition partly induced by a religious revival which proselytized a few of his relatives to the Presbyterian Faith. Joseph himself was inclined toward Methodism; to satisfy his mind as to which one of the existing sects he should join, he sought Divine guidance, and claimed to have received in answer to prayer a visitation from two glorious beings, who told him not to connect himself to any of these Churches, but to bide the coming of Church of Christ, which was about to be re-established.

According to his own statement, there appeared to him on the night of 21 September, 1823, a heavenly messenger, who gave his name as Moroni, and revealed the existence of an ancient record containing the fullness of the Gospel of Christ as taught by the Saviour after his Resurrection to the Nephites, a branch of the House of Israel which inhabited the American continent ages prior to its discovery by Columbus. Moroni in mortal life had been a Nephite prophet, the son of another prophet named Mormon, who was the compiler of the record buried in a hill situated about two miles from the modern village of Manchester.

Joseph Smith states that he received the record from the Angel Moroni in September, 1827. It was, he alleges, engraved upon metallic plates having the appearance of gold and each a little thinner than ordinary tin, the whole forming a book about six inches long, six inches wide, and six inches thick, bound together by rings. The characters engraved upon the plates were in a language styled the Reformed Egyptian, and with the book were interpreters -- Urim and Thummim -- by means of which these characters were to be translated into English. The result was the "Book of Mormon", published at Palmyra, New York in March, 1830; in the preface eleven witnesses, exclusive of Joseph Smith, the translator, claim to have seen the plates from which it was taken. On renouncing Mormonism subsequently, Cowdery, Whitmer, and Harris -- the three principal witnesses -- declared this testimony false.

The "Book of Mormon" purports to be an abridged account of God's dealings with the two great races of prehistoric Americans -- the Jaredites, who were led from the Tower of Babel at the time of the confusion of the tongues, and the Nephites who came from Jerusalem just prior to the Babylonian captivity (600 B.C.). According to this book, America is the "Land of Zion", where the New Jerusalem will be built by a gathering of scattered Israel before the second coming of the Messiah. The labours of such men as Columbus, the Pilgrim Fathers, and the patriots of the Revolution, are pointed out as preparatory to that consummation. The work of Joseph Smith is also prophetically indicated, he being represented as a lineal descendant of the Joseph of old, commissioned to begin the gathering of Israel foretold by Isaias (11:10-16) and other ancient prophets.

In another part of his narrative Joseph Smith affirms that, while translating the "Book of Mormon", he and his scribe, Oliver Cowdery, were visited by an angel, who declared himself to be John the Baptist and ordained them to the Aaronic priesthood; and that subsequently they were ordained to the priesthood of Melchisedech by the Apostles Peter, James and John. According to Smith and Cowdery, the Aaronic priesthood gave them authority to preach faith and repentance, to baptize by immersion for the remission of sins, and to administer the sacrament of the Lord's Supper; the priesthood of Melchisedech empowered them to lay on hands and bestow the Holy Ghost.

The "Book of Mormon" being published, its peculiar doctrines, including those just set forth, were preached in western New York and northern Pennsylvania. Those who accepted them were termed "Mormons", but they called themselves "Latter-Day Saints", in contradistinction to the saints of former times. The "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints" was organized on 6 April, 1830, at Fayette, Seneca County, New York; Joseph Smith was accepted as first elder, and prophet, seer, and revelator.

The articles of faith formulated by him are as follows:

(1) We believe in God, the Eternal Father, and in His Son, Jesus Christ, and in the Holy Ghost.

(2) We believe that men will be punished for their own sins, and not for Adam's transgression.

(3) We believe that through the atonement of Christ all men may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel.

(4) We believe that these ordinances are: First, faith in the Lord Jesus Christ; second, repentance; third, baptism by immersion for the remission of sins; fourth, laying on of hands for the gift of the Holy Ghost

(5) We believe that a man must be called of God by prophecy, and by the laying on of hands by those who are in authority, to preach the Gospel and administer the ordinances thereof.

(6) We believe in the same organization that existed in the primitive church, viz. apostles, prophets, pastors teachers, evangelists, etc.

(7) We believe in the gift of tongues, prophecy, revelation, visions, healing, interpretation of tongues, etc.

(8) We believe the Bible to be the word of God, as far as it is translated correctly; we also believe the 'Book of Mormon' to be the word of God.

(9) We believe all that God has revealed, all that He does now reveal, and we believe that he will yet reveal many great and important things pertaining to the Kingdom of God.

(10) We believe in the literal gathering of Israel and in the restoration of the Ten Tribes. That Zion will be built upon this continent. That Christ will reign personally upon the earth, and that the earth will be renewed and receive its paradisaic glory.

(11) We claim the privilege of worshipping Almighty God according to the dictates of our conscience, and allow all men the same privilege; let them worship how, where, or what they may.

(12) We believe in being subject to kings, president, rulers and magistrates, in obeying. honouring and sustaining that law.

(13) We believe in being honest, true, chaste, benevolent, virtuous, and in doing good to all men; indeed we may say that we follow the admonition of Paul, 'We believe all things, we hope all things' we have endured many things, and hope to be able to endure all things. If there is anything virtuous, lovely or of good report, or praiseworthy, we seek after these things."

Six months after its inception, the Mormon Church sent its first mission to the American Indians -- called in the "Book of Mormon" the Lamanites, "the degenerate remnants of the Nephite nation." Oliver Cowdery was placed at the head of this mission, which also included Parley P. Pratt, a former preacher of the Reformed Baptists, or Campbellites. The missionaries proceeded to northern Ohio, then almost a wilderness, where Elder Pratt presented to his former' pastor, Sidney Rigdon, a copy of the "Book of Mormon", published several months before. Up to that time Rigdon had never seen the book, which he was accused of helping Smith to write. The Mormons are equally emphatic in their denial of the identity of the "Book of Mormon" with Spaulding's "Manuscript Story", now in Oberlin College; they quote in this connection James H. Fairchild that institution, who, in a communication to the "New York Observer" (5 February, 1885), states that Mr. L.L., Rice and he, after comparing the "Book of Mormon" and the Spaulding romance, "could detect no resemblance between the two, in general or detail".

Elder Cowdery and his companions, after baptizing about one hundred persons in Ohio went to western Missouri, and, thence crossing over at Independence into what is now the State of Kansas, laboured for a time among the Indians there. Meanwhile the Mormons of the East, to escape the opposition awakened by their extraordinary claims, and to be nearer their proposed ultimate destination, moved their headquarters to Kirtland, Ohio, from which place, in the summer of 1831, departed its first colony into Missouri -- Jackson County in that state having been designated as the site of the New Jerusalem.

Both at Kirtland and at Independence efforts were made to establish "The United Order", a communal system of an industrial character, designed to make the church members equal in things spiritual and temporal. The prophet taught that a system had sanctified the City of Enoch, whose people were called "Zion, because they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness," with "no poor among them". He also declared that the ancient Apostles had endeavoured to establish such an order at Jerusalem (Acts 4:32-37), and that, according to the "Book of Mormon", it had prevailed among the Nephites for two centuries after Christ.

In the latter part of 1833 trouble arose between the Mormons and the Missourians, based largely, say Mormon writers, upon a feeling of apprehension concerning the aims and motives of the new settlers. Coming from the north and the east, they were suspected of being abolitionists, which was sufficient of itself to make them unpopular in Missouri. It was also charged that they intended to unite with the Indians and drive the older settlers from the land. The Mormons asserted their innocence of these and other charges, but their denial did not avail. Armed mobs came upon them, and the whole colony -- twelve hundred men, women, and children -- were driven from Jackson County, and forbidden on pain of death to return.

In Ohio the Mormons prospered, though even there they had their vicissitudes. At Kirtland a temple was built, and a more complete organization of the priesthood effected. Mormonism's first foreign mission was opened in the summer of 1837, when Heber C. Kimball and Orson Hyde, two of the "twelve apostles of the Church", were sent with other elders to England for that purpose. While this work of proselytizing was in progress, disaffection was rife at Kirtland, and the ill-feeling grew and intensified until the "prophet" was compelled to flee for his life. It is of importance to bear in mind that the opposition to the Mormons in the localities where they settled is, from the contradictory and divergent statements made by the Latter-Day Saints and the neighbours not of their belief, difficult of explanation. It is safe to assume that there was provocation on both sides. The main body of the Mormons, following their leader to Missouri, settled in and around Far West, Caldwell County, which now became the chief gathering place. The sect had been organized by six men, and a year later was said to number about two thousand souls. In Missouri it increased to twelve thousand. A brief season of peace was followed by a series of calamities, occasioned by religious and political differences. The trouble began in August, 1838, and during the strife considerable blood was shed and much property destroyed, the final act in the drama being the mid-winter expulsion of the entire Mormon community from the state.

In Illinois, where they were kindly received, they built around the small village of Commerce, in Hancock County, the city of Nauvoo, gathering in that vicinity to the number of twenty thousand. Another temple was erected, several towns founded, and the surrounding country occupied. Up to this time there had been no Mormon recruiting from abroad, all the converts to the new sect coming from various states in the Union and from Canada. In 1840-1 Brigham Young and other emissaries visited Great Britain, preaching in all the principal cities and towns. Here they baptized a number of people, published a new edition of the "Book of Mormon", founded a periodical called the "Millennial Star", and established a permanent emigration agency. The first Mormon emigrants from a foreign land -- a small company of British converts -- reached Nauvoo. by way of New York, in the summer of 1840. Subsequently the emigration came via New Orleans.

The Legislature of Illinois granted a liberal charter to Nauvoo, and, as a protection against mob violence and further drivings and spoliations, the Mormons were permitted to organize the "Nauvoo Legion", an all but independent military body, though part of the state militia, commanded by Joseph Smith as lieutenant-general. Moreover, a municipal court was instituted, having jurisdiction in civil cases, as a bar to legal proceedings of a persecuting or vexatious character.

Similar causes to those which had resulted in the exodus of the Mormons from Missouri brought about their expulsion from Illinois, prior to which a tragic event robbed them of their prophet, Joseph Smith, and their patriarch, Hyrum Smith, who were killed by a mob in Carthage jail on 27 June, 1844. The immediate cause of the murder of the two brothers was the destruction of the press of the Nauvoo Expositor, a paper established by seceders from Mormonism to give voice to the wide indignation caused by the promulgation of Smith's revelation of 12 July, 1843, establishing polygamy, which had been practised personally by the prophet for several years. Another avowed purpose of this paper was to secure the repeal of the Nauvoo Charter, which the Mormons looked upon as the bulwark of their liberties. The "Expositor" issued but once, when it was condemned as a public nuisance by order of the city council, its printing-office being destroyed and its editor, Foster, expelled. This summary act of anti-Mormon sentiment, and, on Smith's preparing to resist by force the warrant procured by foster for his arrest, the militia were called out and armed mobs began to threaten Nauvoo.

At Carthage was a large body of militia, mustered under Governor Thomas Ford to compel the surrender of Nauvoo. Smith submitted and repaired to Carthage, where he and his brother Hyrum, with others, were placed in jail. Fearful of a bloody collision, the governor disbanded most of his force, and with the remainder marched to Nauvoo, where the Mormons laid down their arms. During the governor's absence, a portion of the disbanded militia returned to Carthage and assaulted the jail in which the Mormon leaders were imprisoned, shooting Joseph and Hyrum Smith, and all but fatally wounding John Taylor; Willard Richards, their fellow-prisoner, escaped unhurt.

In the exodus that ensued, Brigham Young led the people westward. Passing over the frozen Mississippi (February, 1846), the main body made their way across the prairies of Iowa, reaching the Missouri River about the middle of June. A Mormon colony, sailing from New York, rounded Cape Horn, and landed at Yerba Buena (San Francisco) in July, 1846. Prior to that time only a few thousand Americans had settled on the Pacific Coast, mostly in Oregon, which was then claimed both by Great Britain and the United States. So far as known, no American had then made a permanent home in what was called "The Great Basin". The desert region, now known as Salt Lake Valley, was then a part of the Mexican province of California, but was uninhabited save by Indians and a few wandering trappers and hunters.

The Mormon pioneers, marching from the Missouri River in April, 1847, arrived in Salt Lake Valley on 24 July. This company, numbering 143 men, 3 women, and 2 children, was led by Brigham Young. Most of the exiles from Nauvoo remained in temporary shelters on the frontier where they entered into winter quarters in what is now Nebraska. Well-armed and disciplined, they accomplished the journey of over a thousand miles to Salt Lake Valley without one fatality. A few days after their arrival they laid out Salt Lake City.

The people left upon the Missouri migrated in the autumn of 1848, and after them came yearly to the Rocky Mountains, generally in Church wagons sent to the frontier to meet them, Mormon emigrants from the States, from Europe, and from other lands to which missionaries continued to be sent. Most of the converts were drawn from the middle and working classes, but some professional people were among them.

While awaiting the time for the establishment of a civic government, the Mormons were under ecclesiastical rule. Secular officers were appointed, however, to preserve the peace, administer justice, and carry on public improvements. These officers were often selected at church meetings, and civil and religious functions were frequently united in the same person. But this state of affairs did not continue long. As soon as a civic government was organized, many of the forms of political procedure already in use in American commonwealths were introduced, and remained in force till statehood was secured for Utah.

In March, 1849 thirteen months after the signing of the treaty by which Mexico ceded this region to the United States, the settlers in Salt Lake Valley founded the provisional Government of the State of Deseret, pending action by the American Congress upon their petition for admission into the Union. Deseret is a word taken from the "Book of Mormon", and signifies honey-bee. Brigham Young was elected governor, and a legislature, with a full set of executive officers, was also chosen. Congress denied the petition for statehood, and organized the Territory of Utah, naming it after a local tribe of Indians. Brigham Young was appointed governor by President Millard Fillmore (September 1850) and four years later was reappointed by President Franklin Pierce. The period between 1850 and 1858, during which the Mormons defied the authority of the Federal Government, is one of the least creditable chapters of their history.

One reason given for the persistent hostility to the Mormons was the dislike caused by the acrimonious controversy over polygamy or plural marriage. Joseph Smith, the founder of Mormonism, claimed to have received a revelation and a command ordering him to re-introduce plural marriage and restore the polygamous condition tolerated among the pre-Judaic tribes. Polygamy now became a principle of the creed of the Latter-Day Saints, and, though not enforced by the laws of the Mormon hierarchy, was preached by the elders and practised by the chiefs of the cult and by many of the people. The violation by the Mormons of the monogamous law of Christianity and of the United States was brought to the attention of Congress, which prohibited under penalty of fine and imprisonment the perpetuation of the anti-Christian practice, refusing, however, to make the prohibition retroactive. The Mormons appealed to the Supreme Court, which sustained the action of Congress, and established the constitutionality of the anti-polygamy statutes.

The Latter-Day Saints, strangely enough, submitted to the decrees of Congress, unwittingly admitting by their submission that the revelation of their founder and prophet, Joseph Smith, could not have come from God. If the command to restore polygamy to the modern world was from on High, then, by submitting to the decision of the Supreme Court, the Mormon hierarchy reversed the apostolic proclamation and acknowledged it was better "to obey man than to obey God".

So long as Utah remained a territory there was much bitterness between her Mormon and non-Mormon citizens, the latter termed "Gentiles". The Mormons submitted, however, and their president, Wilford Woodruff, issued a "Manifesto" which, being accepted by the Latter-Day Saints in General Conference, withdrew the sanction of the Church from the further solemnization of any marriages forbidden by the law of the land. One of the results of this action was the admission of Utah into the Union of States on 6 January, 1896.

Instances of the violation of the anti-polygamy laws subsequent to the date of the "Manifesto" having been brought to light, the present head of the Church (1913), President Joseph F.Smith, in April, 1904, made the following statement to the General Conference assembled at Salt Lake City, and it was endorsed by resolution and adopted by unanimous vote:

OFFICIAL STATEMENTInasmuch as there are numerous reports in circulation, that-plural marriages have been entered into, contrary to the official declaration of President Woodruff, of September 24th, 1890, commonly called the 'Manifesto', which was issued by President Woodruff and adopted by the Church at its General Conference October 6th 1890, which forbade any marriages violative of the law of the land; I, Joseph F. Smith, President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, hereby affirm and declare that no such marriages have been solemnized with the sanction, consent or knowledge the Church of Jesus Christ of Later-day Saints; and I hereby announce that all such marriages are prohibited, and if any officer or member of the Church shall assume to solemnize or enter into any such marriage, he will be deemed in transgression against the Church he will be liable to be dealt with according to the rules and regulations thereof, and excommunicated therefrom.

Joseph F. Smith,
President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Saints.

In an "Address to the World", adopted at the General Conference of April, 1907, President Smith and his counsellors, John R. Winder and Anthon H. Lund, in behalf of the Church, reaffirmed its attitude of obedience to the laws of Congress. The practice of plural marriage is indeed fast becoming a thing of the past.

Mormonism announces as one of its principal aims the preparation of a people for the coming of the Lord; a people who will build the New Jerusalem, and there await His coming. The United Order, the means of preparation, is at present in abeyance, but the preliminary work of gathering Israel goes on, not to Zion proper (Jackson County, Missouri) but to the Stakes of Zion, now numbering sixty-one, most of them in Utah; the others are in Idaho, Arizona, Wyoming, Colorado, Oregon, Canada and Mexico. A stake is a division of the Mormon Church, organized in such a way as to constitute almost a "church" in itself; in each stake are subdivisions called wards, also fully organized. The area of a stake is usually that of a county, though the extent of territory differs according to population or other conditions. Each stake is presided over by three high-priests, who, with twelve high councilors, constitute a tribunal for the adjudication of differences among church members within their jurisdiction. Each ward has a bishopric of three, a lower tribunal, from whose decisions appeals may be taken to the high council. The extreme penalty inflicted by the church courts is excommunication. In each stake are quorums of high-priests, seventies, and elders, officers and callings in the Melchisedech priesthood: and in each ward, quorums of priests, teachers, and deacons, who officiate in the Aaronic priesthood. This lesser authority ministers in temporal things, while the higher priesthood ministers in things spiritual, which include the temporal.

Presiding over the entire Church is a supreme council of three high-priests, called the First Presidency, otherwise known as the president and his counsellors. Next to these are the twelve apostles, equal in authority to the First Presidency, though subject to and acting under their direction. Whenever the First Presidency is dissolved, which occurs at the death of the president, the apostles take the government and reorganize the supreme council -- always, however, with the consent of the Church, whose members are called to vote for or against this or any other proposition submitted to them. The manner of voting is with the uplifted right hand, women voting as well as men. Besides the general conference held semi-annually and the usual Sabbath meetings, there are stake and ward conferences, in which the consent of the people is obtained before any important action is taken. The special function of the apostles is to preach the Gospel, or have it preached, in all nations, and to set in order, whenever necessary, the affairs of the entire Mormon Church.

Among the general authorities there is also a presiding patriarch, who, with his subordinates in the various stakes, gives blessings to the people and comforts them with sacred ministrations. The first council of the Seventies, seventy in number, assist the twelve apostles, and preside over all the quorums of seventies. Upon a presiding bishopric of three devolves the duty of receiving and disbursing the revenues of the Church, and otherwise managing its business, under the general direction of the first presidency.

The Mormon Church is supported by the tithes and offerings of its members, most of whom reside in the Stakes of Zion, though a good number remain in the several missions, scattered in various countries of the globe. About two thousand missionaries are kept in the field; while they consider themselves under the Divine injunction to "preach the Gospel to every creature", they have special instructions to baptize no married woman without the consent of her husband, and no child under age without the consent of its parents. The tithes are used for the building of temples and other places of worship, the work of the ministry, the furtherance of education and indigent, and for charitable and philanthropic purposes in general. Nearly every male member of the Church holds some office in the priesthood, but only those who devote their entire time to its service receive support.

In every stake are institutions known as auxiliaries, such as relief societies, sabbath schools, young men's and young ladies' mutual improvement associations, primary associations, and religious classes. The Relief Society is a woman's organization, having a special mission for the relief of the destitute and the care of the sick. An "Old Folks committee" is appointed to care for the aged. The Church school system comprises the Brigham Young University at Provo, the Brigham Young College at Logan, and the Latter-Day Saints University at Salt lake City. There are also nearly a score of stake academies. There are four Mormon temples in Utah, the principal one being at Salt Lake City. It was begun in April, 1853, and completed in April, 1893, costing, it is said, about $4,000,000. In these temples ordinances are administered both for the living and the dead. It is held that vicarious work of this character, such as baptisms, endowments etc., will be effectual in saving souls, once mortal, who believe and repent in the spiritual state. The Mormons claim a total membership of 584,000. According to the United States Census Report of 21 May 1910, there are 256,647 Mormons within the Federal Union. [Adapted from Catholic Encyclopedia (1911).]

Books from Alibris: Brigham Young